Philip Behar’s Introduction:
The discussion is part of the Chicago Humanities Festival and recognizes Rich Franke’s contributions to the festival. The program is presented in partnership with WBEZ, Chicago’s public radio station. The festival offers digital programs with closed captioning controlled through YouTube.

Steve Edwards’ Introduction:
Steve Edwards congratulates Walter Isaacson on his book “The Codebreaker” and expresses excitement for their virtual conversation. He notes that the conversation coincides with the one-year anniversary of COVID-19 being declared a global pandemic.

Connecting the Codebreaker to COVID-19 Vaccines:
Steve Edwards asks Walter Isaacson to explain the connection between the story in “The Codebreaker” and the COVID-19 vaccines. Walter Isaacson highlights that President Biden will announce a goal to have 70% of U.S. adults vaccinated by May 1st. He emphasizes the remarkable scientific achievement of developing the vaccines in a short period and the role of messenger RNA (mRNA) technology in this success.

New Vaccines and RNA Technology:
The Pfizer, BioNTech, and Moderna vaccines use RNA technology, a groundbreaking approach different from traditional vaccines. RNA, a cousin of DNA, is programmed to create a fragment of the coronavirus’s spike protein, triggering the immune system to recognize and fight the real virus.

CRISPR and Adaptive Immune Systems:
Bacteria have a natural adaptive immune system called CRISPR, which uses RNA to recognize and cut up the genetic code of attacking viruses. Scientists have harnessed this CRISPR technology to edit genes, making us immune to viruses, detecting viruses, and killing them without vaccines.

CRISPR and the Past:
The development of CRISPR vaccines and tools is a culmination of 15 years of research, tracing back to the discovery of DNA’s structure by James Watson and Francis Crick. Jennifer Doudna played a crucial role in understanding the structure of RNA and its potential for gene editing and fighting viruses.

Collaboration during the Pandemic:
In the face of the pandemic, scientific communities worldwide collaborated to apply CRISPR and RNA technology to combat the coronavirus. Jennifer Doudna and Feng Zhang, former rivals, united their teams to tackle the virus, leading to the development of RNA vaccines.

Implications and the Third Revolution:
This collaboration and triumph of biology are ending the pandemic and ushering in a new era of biotech and innovation. CRISPR and RNA technology hold immense promise for gene editing, fighting viruses, and treating diseases, marking the beginning of the third great scientific revolution of modern times.

Collaboration vs. Competition:
Competition can drive innovation and progress, but collaboration is also essential for scientific breakthroughs. Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuel Charpentier worked around the clock to develop CRISPR, collaborating remotely to win the race to edit human genes. Doudna also collaborated with many other scientists to ensure her team’s success.

The Importance of Publication:
Publishing research quickly is crucial to establish priority and gain recognition. Doudna pressured the editors of Science Magazine to publish her and Charpentier’s paper before their competitors.

Cooperation in the Face of a Common Threat:
When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, scientists like Doudna and Feng Zhang shared their research openly to combat the virus. The threat of the virus led to unprecedented cooperation and collaboration among scientists worldwide.

Jennifer Doudna’s Journey of Discovery:
Jennifer Doudna’s story is a captivating journey of discovery, from her childhood curiosity about nature in Hawaii to becoming a Nobel Prize-winning scientist. Inspired by Rosalind Franklin’s work, Doudna pursued a career in science despite societal norms and discouragement. Her research focused on understanding RNA and its role in the CRISPR system of bacteria, leading to the development of gene-editing technology. Doudna’s persistence and dedication exemplify her role as a central character in the CRISPR narrative.

Doudna’s Contributions to CRISPR and RNA:
Doudna’s discoveries about RNA’s structure and its role in CRISPR provided insights into the origins of life. She played a crucial role in developing CRISPR-Cas9, a gene-editing tool that allows scientists to precisely modify DNA. Doudna’s work on RNA and CRISPR has implications for medicine, agriculture, and other fields, demonstrating the broad impact of her research.

Doudna’s Leadership in Public Policy and Ethics:
Doudna has taken a leading role in addressing the ethical and societal implications of gene-editing technology. She has organized global conferences and summits to discuss the responsible use of CRISPR and ensure its benefits are accessible to all. Doudna’s advocacy for responsible gene editing highlights her commitment to ensuring the technology is used for the greater good.

Doudna as a Narrative Hero:
Doudna’s journey, from a curious girl in Hawaii to a Nobel laureate, makes her a compelling central character in the CRISPR story. Her persistence, curiosity, and dedication to science resonate with audiences, making her a relatable and inspiring figure. Doudna’s role as a narrative hero allows readers to connect with the human side of scientific discovery and its impact on society.

The Three Great Revolutions:
The first revolution was the physics revolution, based on the atom, leading to advancements like the atom bomb, space travel, and semiconductors. The second revolution was the information technology revolution, based on the bit, leading to computers, the internet, and the microchip. The third revolution is the genetic revolution, based on the gene, allowing us to recode genes in our bodies and molecules.

Ethical Implications of Genetic Editing:
The ability to hack our own evolution and rewrite the code of our own lives raises significant ethical questions. Questions arise about when, how, whether, and under what circumstances genetic editing should be allowed and permitted.

Positive Applications of Genetic Editing:
Victoria Gray became the first person to have her genes edited and cured of sickle cell disease. Other potential applications include treating genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease, and developing crops resistant to pests and diseases.

Challenges and Concerns:
Off-target effects and unintended consequences of genetic editing are a concern. The potential for discrimination and eugenics is a serious ethical concern. Ensuring equitable access to genetic editing technologies is important.

Conclusion:
The third great revolution, based on genetic editing, has the potential to transform medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life itself. However, it also raises complex ethical, social, and legal questions that need to be carefully considered and addressed.

CRISPR’s Potential Applications:
CRISPR holds immense potential in revolutionizing healthcare by addressing hereditary diseases and certain cancers. It can correct single-gene mutations responsible for conditions like sickle cell, Huntington’s disease, and cystic fibrosis. Clinical trials are underway for CRISPR-based treatments for congenital blindness and various cancers.

Home-based Genetic Testing:
Home testing devices for genetic susceptibility are imminent, enabling individuals to test for various conditions, including infections and cancers, with ease. This advancement will improve health outcomes by enabling early detection and treatment. It will also contribute to pandemic control by facilitating the tracking and mapping of infectious disease outbreaks.

Ethical Considerations:
The availability of at-home genetic testing raises ethical questions regarding the extent of information individuals should possess about their health. While many may desire comprehensive knowledge, others may prefer to remain unaware of potential health risks. The balance between the right to know and the potential psychological burden of such knowledge needs careful consideration.

Slippery Slopes:
The ethical concerns surrounding CRISPR technology extend beyond home testing. Scientists and ethicists emphasize the need for cautious and incremental progress to avoid unintended consequences. Two areas of particular concern include the use of gene editing to enhance human traits beyond the field of treating diseases and the potential for unintended genetic modifications.

Conclusion:
CRISPR technology offers transformative possibilities for addressing hereditary diseases and cancers, but it also raises ethical questions regarding the extent of genetic information individuals should possess and the potential for unintended consequences. A measured and collaborative approach is essential to navigate these ethical challenges and harness the full potential of CRISPR technology for the betterment of humanity.

Blurred Lines Between Medical Cures and Human Enhancement:
Gene editing techniques developed to treat genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia carry potential for enhancements. Editing genes to enhance athletic capabilities, muscle growth, or cognitive functions raises ethical questions. Balancing the desire to improve human capabilities with potential societal disparities and moral concerns.

Editing the Germline:
Inheritable genetic edits, known as germline editing, can alter future generations’ genetic makeup. Ethical considerations arise when editing the germline, as it goes beyond individual treatment and impacts the entire human species. Concerns about creating genetic disparities, eugenics, and potential unintended consequences of germline editing.

Impact of Genetic Conditions on Human Character:
Genetic conditions can shape individuals’ experiences, leading to resilience, patience, compassion, and other positive attributes. Editing out genetic conditions may deprive individuals of these transformative life experiences. Balancing the desire to prevent suffering with the potential loss of character-building challenges.

Diversity and Inclusivity in a Gene-Edited Society:
Gene editing raises questions about societal attitudes towards diversity and inclusivity. Deafness, for example, is seen by some as a unique cultural identity rather than a disability. Balancing the desire to cure genetic conditions with the recognition of diverse abilities and perspectives.

Historical and Philosophical Perspectives on Genetic Engineering:
Ethical debates about genetic engineering have been ongoing for decades. Gene editing raises questions about the natural order and human intervention in the genetic code. Ethical considerations in gene editing encompass religious, philosophical, and cultural viewpoints.

Conclusion:
The rapid advancements in gene editing technology require thoughtful consideration of ethical implications. Balancing medical benefits, human enhancement, and social consequences is crucial in shaping policies and guidelines for gene editing. Open-mindedness, careful analysis, and public dialogue are necessary to navigate the ethical challenges posed by gene editing.

He Jiankui’s Experiment: A Controversial Milestone in Human Genome Editing:
Chinese scientist He Jiankui made inheritable genetic modifications in twin girls two and a half years ago, causing shock and awe within the scientific community. The premature and unsafe procedure raised concerns about unintended consequences and off-target edits. Ethical dilemmas emerged regarding the alteration of the human species and the existence of alternative methods to prevent diseases like AIDS.

Sloppy Execution and Ethical Concerns:
He Jiankui’s sloppy execution of the gene editing procedure further fueled criticism. Despite potential improvements in the future, the premature crossing of the inheritable edit line sparked debates on the necessity and morality of such interventions.

Pandemic’s Impact on Public Perception:
The COVID-19 pandemic has influenced public opinion, leading to reconsiderations about the potential benefits of gene editing in combating dangerous viruses. The need for a collective and thoughtful approach to gene editing is emphasized, with a focus on exploring the possibilities while addressing ethical concerns.

Accessibility and Potential Misuse:
The relative simplicity and accessibility of gene editing technology raise concerns about its potential misuse by bad actors, state actors, and individuals seeking unfair advantages. The need to prevent sci-fi scenarios and ensure responsible and ethical implementation of gene editing is highlighted.

Personal Experiences and Challenges:
The authors share their own experiences working in a lab where gene editing was conducted, emphasizing the importance of careful consideration and ethical decision-making. The challenge of balancing potential benefits with potential risks and unintended consequences is acknowledged, calling for ongoing discussions and collaboration within the scientific community.

CRISPR Gene Editing: Accessibility and Regulation:
CRISPR gene editing is relatively easy to perform, making it potentially accessible to a wide range of individuals and organizations. The challenge lies in delivering the gene edits effectively, either to early-stage embryos or to cells in the body. Regulation and oversight are essential to prevent misuse and ensure responsible use of CRISPR technology.

Anti-CRISPR and Societal Pressure:
The Defense Department is investing in research to develop anti-CRISPR technologies that can reverse or mitigate the effects of CRISPR gene editing. Societal pressure and shame can play a role in discouraging individuals from engaging in unethical or illegal uses of CRISPR technology.

Privatization and Inequity Concerns:
Privatization of CRISPR technology may lead to increased inequity, as those with financial means will have access to genetic enhancements that others cannot afford. Ensuring equal access to CRISPR-based treatments and therapies is a crucial ethical consideration.

Balancing Innovation and Regulation:
Striking a balance between promoting innovation in gene editing and implementing regulations to prevent misuse is essential. International collaboration and consensus among countries can help establish global standards and guidelines for the responsible use of CRISPR technology.

Potential Drawbacks of CRISPR Technology:
CRISPR gene editing may exacerbate societal inequality by allowing the wealthy to purchase genetic enhancements for their children. This could lead to a scenario where the genetically enhanced and the unenhanced are divided, similar to the dystopian visions portrayed in “Brave New World” and “Gattaca.”

Efforts to Address Inequality and Safety Concerns:
Researchers are working on making CRISPR more equitable and affordable, particularly for diseases like sickle cell that disproportionately affect underserved communities. There is a push to ensure that genetic technologies do not widen the inequality gap and that they benefit everyone in society. The Chinese doctor’s experiment raised safety concerns due to the lack of assurance regarding the long-term consequences of removing the CCR5 gene, which produces the receptor for HIV.

Safety Measures and Guidelines for CRISPR Editing:
To ensure safety, one approach is to limit CRISPR edits to creating cells or genomes that are typical of what already exists in the human species. Editing should aim to fix abnormalities and restore typical genetic makeups, rather than introducing new or untested genetic changes. This approach minimizes the risk of unintended consequences and increases the likelihood of safety.

Potential Benefits of CRISPR Technology:
CRISPR can be used to edit agricultural crops and livestock to make them more resilient to climate change, such as droughts and floods. This can help address food security concerns and ensure a more sustainable food supply. CRISPR shows promise in treating other medical conditions beyond sickle cell, such as hemophilia. Ongoing research is exploring the potential applications of CRISPR in treating a wide range of diseases.

Gene Editing for Carbon Capture and Diseases:
Walter Isaacson discussed the potential of genetic editing to create organisms capable of carbon capture, enhancing nature’s ability to mitigate climate change. While not an expert in this field, Isaacson acknowledged Bill Gates’ work in using CRISPR to develop such organisms. For genetic diseases, Isaacson highlighted the promise of genetic editing for conditions with simple genetic causes, such as hemophilia. Complex conditions like cancer and intelligence, influenced by genetic, environmental, and chance factors, pose greater challenges for genetic editing.

GMOs and Controversies:
In response to Steve Edwards’ question about GMOs, Isaacson expressed his intention to take a controversial stance. Despite controversies surrounding GMOs, Isaacson emphasized the potential benefits of genetic editing for agriculture. He suggested that GMOs could help address global food security challenges by increasing crop yields and resilience to pests and diseases. Isaacson acknowledged the concerns and skepticism surrounding GMOs, particularly among consumers and environmental groups. He emphasized the need for transparency, rigorous scientific assessment, and consumer education to address these concerns.

GMOs and Anti-GMO Sentiment:
Isaacson acknowledges opposition to GMOs but emphasizes the importance of understanding what GMOs are and their benefits. He views GMOs as a boon to the planet, particularly the golden corn and golden rice, which have significantly improved agricultural productivity. Isaacson stresses that all organisms on Earth have been genetically modified over time and advocates for balanced use of GMOs, fertilizers, and chemicals. He criticizes the knee-jerk reaction against GMOs in grains and attributes some of the negative perceptions to the actions of agribusinesses.

CRISPR and Ethical Considerations:
Isaacson anticipates that the anti-GMO sentiment, especially strong in Europe, may extend to concerns about CRISPR and genetic engineering in humans. He recognizes the potential benefits of CRISPR in addressing rare genetic diseases and expresses empathy for parents seeking solutions for their children’s genetic conditions. Isaacson emphasizes the need for openness to scientific advancements while exercising caution in modifying nature.

Impact of Gene Editing on Human Evolution:
Isaacson believes that computational biology, data mining, genetic engineering, and coding will converge, leading to significant advancements. He predicts that the biotech revolution, particularly gene editing, will have a greater lasting impact than artificial intelligence or augmented intelligence in the next 20 years. Isaacson acknowledges that general artificial intelligence, beyond his ability to predict, may eventually surpass the impact of gene editing.

Important Lesson for Students:
Isaacson emphasizes the importance of understanding gene editing and its potential impact on humanity. He encourages students to learn about the science behind gene editing, its applications, and the ethical considerations surrounding its use. Isaacson believes that students should be equipped with knowledge to make informed decisions about gene editing and its future implications.

Basic Science and Curiosity Lead to Unexpected Discoveries:
Curiosity and basic science often lead to unexpected discoveries and advancements. Jennifer Doudna’s work on gene editing emerged from her curiosity and exploration in bacteriology.

Interdisciplinary Curiosity and Creativity:
Great scientific advances often come from individuals with diverse interests across disciplines. Combining the sciences and humanities fosters creativity and innovation. Biology teachers should contextualize science within human history, evolution, and aspirations.

The Importance of Wonder and Basic Questions:
Maintaining childlike curiosity and asking basic questions is essential for scientific exploration. Leonardo da Vinci, Albert Einstein, Steve Jobs, Benjamin Franklin, and Jennifer Doudna all shared this trait. They didn’t outgrow their wonder years and continued asking fundamental questions.

Commonalities Among Great Minds:
Leonardo da Vinci, Albert Einstein, Steve Jobs, Benjamin Franklin, and Jennifer Doudna all had diverse interests and a foot in both the humanities and sciences. They were interested in various subjects, including art, anatomy, zoology, music, and math. This interdisciplinary approach allowed them to see patterns and connections across different fields.

Habits and Approaches from Studying Great Figures:
Persistence, focus, and the ability to tune out distractions are valuable traits for creative work. Isaacson emphasizes the importance of looking at the broad picture and not being intimidated by any subject. Maintaining a childlike curiosity and openness to learning is crucial for intellectual growth.

The Importance of Embracing Curiosity:
Walter Isaacson emphasizes the value of curiosity and appreciating various fields of knowledge, including science, literature, art, and life experiences. He believes that dismissing or neglecting certain areas of knowledge, such as computers or art, limits personal growth and understanding. Isaacson encourages individuals to remain open-minded and embrace the opportunity to learn new things, regardless of their perceived complexity.

Civic Engagement and Local Involvement:
Isaacson highlights the significance of civic engagement and involvement in local communities. He views Chicago as a prime example of civic interaction and collaboration, and he expresses his desire to instill this spirit in New Orleans. Isaacson suggests that by thinking and acting locally, individuals can contribute to reducing political toxicity and promoting positive change in their communities.

The Joy of Teaching and Learning from Students:
Isaacson expresses his love for teaching and interacting with young students. He finds joy in teaching a course on the digital revolution and witnessing the students’ fascination and open-mindedness. Isaacson values the opportunity to learn from students as much as they learn from him, creating a mutually beneficial learning environment.

Balancing Writing, Teaching, and Civic Involvement:
Isaacson juggles his time between writing books, teaching at Tulane University, and serving on various nonprofit and other boards. He enjoys the diversity of his pursuits and finds fulfillment in contributing to different areas of society. Isaacson emphasizes the importance of finding balance and pursuing activities that align with one’s passions and interests.