Origins of Interactive Computing:
Mitch Waldrop explains the story behind JCR-Licklider’s crucial role in the development of interactive computing. Licklider, initially a psychologist studying the auditory system, later contributed significantly to the concept of human-computer interaction during World War II.

Birth of Human Factors Concept:
During his time at Harvard, Licklider developed solutions to aid pilots in noisy aircraft environments, helping him delve into the then-emerging field of human factors in technology. This work set the groundwork for his later research at MIT.

Licklider’s MIT Period:
Licklider moved to MIT post-war, where he was involved in air defense projects due to the emerging nuclear threat. He played a significant role in creating an advanced radar system, guided by the concept of real-time computing, that had to interact promptly with human inputs.

The First Real-Time Computer:
The real-time computer, named “Whirlwind,” was arguably the world’s first personal computer. It interacted with the user in real-time, allowing them to input a program and see immediate results. This system was a paradigm shift from traditional computing, emphasizing responsiveness over turnaround time.

Foundation of Modern Computing:
The design principles behind the radar system set the groundwork for the modern computer. The interactive, real-time system involved a display screen, keyboard, and an input device for direct interaction with the screen – concepts that have become standard in today’s computing world.

The Dawn of Networked Computers:
Licklider envisioned a network of computers, like the interconnected radar centers, capable of storing and displaying all forms of human knowledge in a meaningful way. This early conception laid the foundation for the internet as we know it today.

Concept of Interactive Computing and Internet:
JCR Licklider, in a speech in 1957, introduced the idea of the internet. His vision was about using computers to aid people in tasks they’re not good at, such as arithmetic or data tabulation.
This concept evolved into the notion of a symbiotic relationship between humans and computers, enhancing human capabilities rather than replacing them.

Licklider’s Role and Impact:
Licklider moved to Bolt-Boranic and Newman in 1960 and began experimenting with portable commercial interactive computers, defining the idea of ‘Man Computer Symbiosis’.
In 1962, Licklider was hired by the Advanced Projects Agency (ARPA), providing him with funding to further his research and bringing researchers nationwide under the same umbrella.

Birth of ARPANET and Internet:
Licklider anticipated a ‘Tower of Babel’ effect among his research teams and dictated a memo to connect all ARPA research centers, providing the basis for the ARPANET.
When technology caught up, ARPANET was launched in 1969 as a realization of Licklider’s vision and later evolved into today’s internet.

Interactive Computing Applications:
Interactive computing gave rise to applications like airline reservation systems, point-of-sale computing, and e-commerce.
Project Mac at MIT pioneered timeshare computing, enabling ‘personal computing’. It also introduced concepts like email and the term ‘hackers’.

Advent of Microchips and Personal Computers:
With the advent of microchips in the 1970s, personal computers became economically viable, leading to a surge in individual ownership and usage.

Revolutionary Shift in Computing:
The 1960s marked a radical shift from batch processing mainframe models to more interactive computing.
Traditional computing giants like IBM focused on mainframe models, but companies like Digital Equipment Company started developing mini-computers to enable interactive computing.
This marked the beginning of the transition towards personal computing.

Birth of Networking:
The concept of networking was considered radical, and companies like AT&T were initially dismissive.
However, ARPANET, the precursor to the internet, began to lay the foundations for networking by constantly keeping connections open, in contrast to traditional telephony methods.

Development of an Information Commons:
The idea of an “information commons”, a shared space for freely exchanging information, only began to form in the early 1980s.
The concept was hindered by differing networking protocols and security concerns.
The ARPANET’s TCP/IP protocol was selected by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to form a network for supercomputing centers across the country.

The Emergence of NSFNET:
NSFNET launched in 1985, linking supercomputing centers and university campuses nationally.
Initially facing technical challenges due to high demand, NSFNET’s adoption of TCP/IP played a crucial role in unifying networking standards.
The shared language fostered cooperation between institutions, encouraging the development of local area networks in campuses and companies.
This set the stage for the widespread adoption of the internet and the birth of the digital age.

The Role of Xerox PARC in the History of Computing:
Xerox, in its heyday, sought to create the ‘Office of the Future’, leading to the creation of Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
The center was led by Robert Taylor, a former member of the ARPA community, who recruited top-tier researchers from the same community to work on innovative projects.
The culmination of their efforts was the Alto, a precursor to the modern personal workstation, which introduced many features we now take for granted, such as bitmap graphics, word processing, and Ethernet connectivity.

Technological Innovations from Xerox PARC:
The PARC team created the first bitmap graphics screen, allowing individual pixel manipulation and a variety of graphics displays.
The first interactive word processing program, a precursor to Microsoft Word, was developed.
Ethernet, the foundation for local area networks, was invented by Bob Metcalf, who was also involved in the first ARPANET node at MIT.
The PARC team also developed the first laser printer, allowing for the physical printouts of digital creations.

The Missed Opportunity:
Despite having these groundbreaking technologies, Xerox didn’t capitalize on them to lead the personal computer revolution.
Xerox was committed to its original vision of a comprehensive, interconnected office environment, which was a large investment for potential clients, while competitors like Apple and IBM provided more affordable, modular solutions.
Xerox failed to anticipate the appeal of the spreadsheet software created for the Apple II, which greatly boosted Apple’s sales and firmly established them in the nascent personal computing market.

Internal Conflict at Xerox:
There were tensions within Xerox, as more profitable divisions were not aligned with the long-term vision of PARC.
A critical demonstration of the laser printer was scrapped by a senior manager who favored the short-term profitability of the copier business. This decision likely cost Xerox a head-start in the digital printing market.

Innovation at MIT’s Radiation Lab:
During the 1940s and 50s, MIT’s Radiation Lab, originally focused on developing radar technology, became a hotbed for innovation due to a convergence of various disciplines working together.
This collaboration led to a series of novel discoveries and advancements across various fields, including microwave technology, neuroscience, and computing.
The lab’s work resulted in several significant outcomes, such as the invention of the microwave oven and advances in neuroscience.

Influence of Norbert Wiener:
Mathematician Norbert Wiener, one of the key figures at MIT, significantly influenced the field by introducing the concept of cybernetics.
This field focused on studying feedback loops and was an early exploration of what we now understand as information theory.

Impact of Turing and Shannon:
Alan Turing’s work on computability became increasingly appreciated, laying the groundwork for modern computing concepts.
Claude Shannon’s work on information theory and his realization of the parallels between logic and electrical circuits formed the basis for digital computing. His master’s thesis, which articulated this idea, is considered foundational for all subsequent digital computing.