The Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering hosted Secretary Stephen Chu from Stanford University for a lecture on climate change and clean energy. The event included opening remarks, an introduction of the Wank Lecture Series, and a brief biography of Professor Chu. After the lecture, there was a closing reception at the Levering Complex.

The Life and Contributions of Dr. Edward Wenk
Dr. Edward Wenk, a civil engineer and scientist, earned degrees from Johns Hopkins University and Harvard University. He served as a science and technology advisor to the U.S. Congress and President Kennedy. Dr. Wenk played a key role in establishing the Office of Science and Technology Policy and the President’s Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development. He later became a professor at the University of Washington, where he directed the program in social management of technology and conducted research on environmental issues. Dr. Wenk received an honorary degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1989 and was recognized for his dedication to humanitarian causes and preserving human dignity.

The Contributions of Carolyn Wenk
Carolyn Wenk was a dedicated volunteer in hospitals, mental health facilities, and homeless shelters. She was also an accomplished watercolor artist whose work was featured in several shows. Carolyn Wenk passed away in October 2004, and her husband, Edward, passed away in June 2012.

Introduction of Professor Julian H. Krolik
Professor Julian H. Krolik from the Johns Hopkins University Department of Physics and Astronomy was invited to the podium to formally introduce the keynote speaker, Professor Stephen Chu.

Introduction:
Steve Chu, a Nobel laureate and former U.S. Secretary of Energy, presents a lecture on climate change and a cost-effective path to clean energy.

Steve Chu’s Background:
Chu’s distinguished career spans atomic physics, quantum electronics, and biological systems. He received his PhD from Berkeley and conducted groundbreaking research at Bell Labs. Chu’s laser cooling method revolutionized high-precision measurements and earned him the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics. He served as a professor at Stanford and director of the Lawrence Berkeley Lab.

Chu’s Role as U.S. Secretary of Energy:
Chu led a major shift in LBL’s focus, emphasizing alternative energy sources and energy policy. He oversaw increased investment in renewable energy research, including the launch of ARPA-E.

Climate Change Risks:
Chu presents data showing a steady increase in global land and sea surface temperatures since 1880. He addresses the recent plateau in temperature rise and explains that it was due to the cold temperatures in the deep ocean. The Argo floats, which measure ocean temperatures at various depths, provide valuable data for understanding climate change.

Science and Technology as Solutions:
Chu emphasizes the role of science and technology in addressing climate change. He highlights the need for a cost-effective path to clean energy. The lecture continues with discussions on specific solutions and strategies for mitigating climate change.

Ocean Temperature Trends:
In 2015, new data was released that incorporated ocean temperature measurements in addition to surface temperature. The light gray line in the graph shows seasonal variations in ocean temperature, with summer and winter patterns repeating over time. The dashed lines in the monthly trends show a plateauing of the temperature, indicating that energy is being conserved.

Energy Conservation and Climate Models:
Scientists measured the energy hitting Earth from various sources, including solar radiation, microwaves, and ionized radiation. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse gas effect. During the period of temperature plateau, the energy input and output remained relatively balanced, suggesting that excess energy was being absorbed by the oceans. Climate models were not accurately predicting changes in surface deep ocean mixing, which led to more mixing and energy absorption during that time.

Glacier Melting and Sea Level Rise:
There is clear evidence that glaciers are melting, and the sea level is rising. Anecdotal evidence includes comparing photos of glaciers, such as Muir Glacier in Alaska, over time, showing significant recession.

GRACE Satellite Mission:
GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) satellites measure changes in Earth’s gravity field. GRACE data reveals that Antarctica is losing ice, especially in western Antarctica. This finding surprised scientists who expected Antarctica to gain ice due to increased precipitation.

Sea Level Rise in the Past and Projections:
During the last interglacial period (129,000 to 116,000 years ago), sea levels were six to nine meters higher than today due to a one-degree Celsius temperature increase. Current global temperatures are already one degree Celsius warmer than pre-industrial levels and are projected to rise further. Climate models predict sea level rise of one meter or more by 2100, depending on emission scenarios. By 2400-2500, sea levels could rise by five to 15 meters under current emission scenarios.

Carbon Dioxide and Human Influence:
The recent increase in carbon dioxide levels is due to human activities, not natural climate cycles. Carbon dating evidence shows that the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere today is significantly older than the carbon dioxide naturally released by plants and animals. This indicates that the current carbon dioxide increase is a result of burning fossil fuels, not natural processes.

Carbon-14 Dating:
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon that is formed in the upper atmosphere by cosmic ray bombardment. Carbon-14 is incorporated into all living things and decays over time with a half-life of 5,700 years. Carbon dating measures the amount of carbon-14 in an object to determine its age. Carbon dating evidence shows that the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere today is significantly older than the carbon dioxide naturally released by plants and animals.

Carbon-14 and Fossil Fuels:
Carbon-14 has a lifetime of 5,700 years. When fossil fuels are burned, they release carbon-12, not carbon-14, into the atmosphere. This dilutes the ratio of carbon-14 in the atmosphere.

Carbon-14 and Equilibrium:
Carbon-14 is made, diffuses in, is incorporated into life, life dies, decays, and is turned back into methane or carbon dioxide. This creates an equilibrium, with a steady state of carbon-14 in the atmosphere.

Carbon Dioxide and Carbon-14 Levels:
Since 1750, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have been rising. Carbon-14 levels have been declining.

H-Bomb Testing and Carbon-14:
H-bomb testing in the 1950s and 1960s released large amounts of carbon-14 into the atmosphere. This carbon-14 was absorbed by the ocean. The carbon-14 levels in the atmosphere then decreased rapidly.

Dilution of Carbon-14:
The decrease in carbon-14 levels is due to both atmosphere-ocean mixing and the release of carbon-12 from fossil fuels. The rate of decrease is too much to be explained by atmosphere-ocean mixing alone.

Carbon Dioxide Levels:
Steven Chu presents evidence that the increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere is primarily caused by human activities, as the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 has been decreasing due to the burning of fossil fuels.

Sea Level Rise:
The impact of sea level rise is significant, with about one-tenth of the world’s population living within 10 meters of sea level. In this century, sea level rise is projected to reach approximately one meter, resulting in potential displacement of 700 million people.

Water Scarcity:
In California and the Rockies, climate change is expected to bring spring rains instead of spring snows, leading to reduced snowpack and water storage. The limited capacity of reservoirs and the inability to increase their height due to environmental concerns exacerbate the water shortage issue. Increased irrigation needs due to hotter spring and summer weather further strain water resources.

Deeper Wells and Brackish Water:
Farmers have been forced to drill deeper wells to access water, increasing the risk of encountering brackish or salty water. In Texas, the government has implemented regulations to limit water usage by farmers on their own land.

Boron Contamination:
Boron levels in water are becoming an issue, as high concentrations can harm crops. Boron removal from water is becoming necessary in affected areas.

Extreme Weather Events:
Recent heavy rainfall events in Louisiana and East Texas illustrate the increasing frequency of extreme weather events. One in a thousand-year rainfall events are becoming more common, challenging traditional statistical models.

Rainfall Distribution Analysis:
Chu presents research on the distribution of rainfall patterns, particularly in the tails of the distribution. The study found that beyond one event every 30 years, rainfall distribution follows a single exponential decay, rather than a Gaussian distribution. This finding has implications for understanding and predicting extreme weather events.

Climate Change and the Urgency of Action:
Steven Chu emphasizes the need to confront climate change, drawing parallels to the public health campaign against smoking. The data on rising temperatures and extreme weather events is robust, indicating an increase in the frequency and severity of these events. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides climate scenarios projecting future greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on global temperatures.

Cumulative Carbon Emissions and the 2-Degree Target:
Cumulative carbon emissions, rather than annual emissions, are a more accurate measure of the climate change challenge. The world has already exceeded the emissions threshold for a two-thirds chance of staying below a 2-degree Celsius temperature increase. The current emissions trajectory indicates a high probability of surpassing even higher temperature thresholds, with significant consequences.

Smoking as an Analogy for Climate Change:
The analogy between smoking and climate change highlights the delayed health effects of both behaviors. Just as smoking led to an increase in lung cancer deaths decades later, the full impact of carbon emissions on climate change will be felt by future generations. The public health campaign against smoking serves as a model for addressing climate change through public education and policy changes.

Transitioning from Fossil Fuels to Better Solutions:
The transition away from fossil fuels is necessary, but it must be accompanied by economically viable alternatives. Stranded assets, such as untapped oil and gas reserves, are a concern, but they can be avoided by finding better solutions that make fossil fuels obsolete. The economics of the transition are crucial, as countries are reluctant to leave valuable resources in the ground without viable alternatives.

Conclusion:
Steven Chu’s presentation highlights the urgency of addressing climate change, emphasizing the need for collective action, public education, and policy changes to mitigate the long-term consequences of greenhouse gas emissions.

Economical Solutions:
Energy efficiency is the best low-cost solution. California began with appliance standards in the 1970s. Efficiency standards reduced both purchase price and cost of ownership for appliances. Economists were skeptical of the data showing cost reduction with efficiency standards.

Refrigerators:
Refrigerator costs declined 28% for each doubling of production. Energy savings from efficient refrigerators are equivalent to 67 gigawatts of nuclear reactors.

Airplanes:
The Boeing 787 uses only 18% of the fuel per passenger mile as the Boeing 707. The Boeing 777 and the bar-tailed godwit can both fly nonstop 1,100 kilometers. Airplanes and birds both require high-density fuel for long-distance travel.

Wind and Solar Energy:
The United States, Canada, and Mexico have tremendous wind energy potential.

Technology Advancements:
Taller wind turbine hubs and larger blades are being used to increase energy output. Offshore wind turbines are even larger, with capacities of up to six megawatts. Solar panels are also becoming more efficient and affordable.

Declining Prices:
The prices of wind and solar energy are rapidly decreasing due to technological improvements and competitive bidding. Solar energy is now cheaper than natural gas in many regions, even without subsidies. Wind energy is also becoming increasingly cost-competitive with natural gas.

Potential for Future Cost Reductions:
Renewable energy sources are expected to continue to decline in price over the coming decade. By 2035, the cost of wholesale electricity from renewable sources could be less than half of what it is today.

Challenges of High Renewable Energy Penetration:
Integrating large amounts of intermittent renewable energy sources into the grid poses challenges for grid stability and reliability. Solar energy is particularly challenging due to its variable nature.

Energy Storage Limitations:
Energy storage technologies can provide day-night or short-term storage, but seasonal or multi-month storage is not feasible in the near future. Batteries capable of long-term storage are not economically viable.

Transmission Infrastructure:
China’s wind farms are located in remote areas, necessitating long-distance transmission lines. China is building high-voltage, long-distance DC transmission lines to efficiently move electricity across vast distances with minimal energy loss. The United States lacks a comprehensive transmission network, with the last DC line constructed in 1989.

Economic and Political Barriers:
Some regions resist the import of cheaper energy from renewable sources to protect existing investments in electricity generation plants. The high cost of electricity in New England could be reduced by importing clean hydroelectric power from Canada, but this is hindered by economic and political factors.

Introduction:
Steven Chu, former Secretary of Energy, presents insights into the opportunities and challenges in transforming the energy sector towards sustainability.

Grid Modernization:
The current grid system faces resistance to the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources and distributed generation. A modern grid with automated instrumentation, machine learning, and data analysis is essential for efficient management of complex energy flows.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:
Advanced technologies like machine learning and massive data sets improve weather and energy demand prediction. AI applications enhance pattern recognition, failure prediction, and translation services. These technologies will be crucial for grid optimization and autonomous driving in the energy sector.

Energy Storage Solutions:
Steven Chu highlights various energy storage methods, including pumped hydro storage and cooling water for air conditioning. Stanford University’s co-jam plant exemplifies the practical and economical use of nighttime electricity for cooling.

Battery Technology:
Ongoing research focuses on improving battery technology, particularly silicon and lithium metal anodes. The potential for high energy density and long lifespan in these batteries could revolutionize transportation. The cost of batteries is decreasing rapidly, with Tesla’s Gigafactory projections indicating a promising trend.

Chemical Storage and Sustainability:
The final challenge in achieving full sustainability lies in developing chemical storage and liquid hydrocarbon room temperature storage.

Conclusion:
Steven Chu emphasizes the exciting opportunities presented by technological advancements in the energy sector. These innovations have the potential to transform energy production, distribution, and storage, leading towards a more sustainable future.

Cheaper Production of Hydrogen:
Splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using clean, cheap electricity is a cost-effective way to produce hydrogen.

Production of Hydrocarbons:
Cheap, clean electricity can be utilized to convert carbon dioxide into hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are storable at room temperature and easily transportable worldwide.

Security and Sustainability:
Using carbon dioxide from power plants, cement plants, steel plants, and the atmosphere can provide energy security and independence. Creating liquid hydrocarbons from clean, carbon-free energy promotes sustainability.

Hydrogen Cost Analysis:
Hydrogen needs to be priced at $1.50 per kilogram for transportation. Current technologies produce hydrogen at $5 per kilogram. Anticipated reduction in electricity cost can make hydrogen production using clean energy sources more affordable.

Feasibility of Clean Energy Sources:
If electricity can be produced at $0.02 per kilowatt hour and capital expenses are managed, using clean energy sources to create liquid hydrocarbons becomes feasible.

Elimination of Conventional Energy Sources:
With clean energy sources producing liquid hydrocarbons, the reliance on nuclear, coal, and natural gas can be diminished. The process can become self-sustaining.

Carbon Dioxide Capture:
Capturing carbon dioxide from the air is crucial to prevent rising global temperatures and potentially catastrophic consequences. The estimated cost of capturing carbon dioxide is $100 per ton.

Climate Change Reality:
Strong evidence exists of climate change caused primarily by human activities.

Solutions for Carbon Capture:
Removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and sequestering it safely. Mineralization, recycling into carbon-based fuels, and bacterial engineering are potential solutions.

Bacterial Engineering:
Bacterial engineering has potential for carbon capture but has not yet achieved commercial viability.

Agriculture’s Role:
More sustainable agriculture practices can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Lower tillage, reducing over-fertilization, and improving fertilizer efficiency are effective strategies.

Geoengineering through Agriculture:
Agriculture itself is a form of geoengineering and is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Improving agricultural practices worldwide can have a substantial impact.

Fracking and Shale Gas Impact:
Environmental incidents have occurred during fracking and shale gas extraction. The rise in oil supply is partly due to fracking.

Environmental Mishaps and Avoidable Incidents:
Environmental mishaps in the oil and gas industry are often due to sloppy drilling practices, as seen in incidents like Macondo and ExxonMobil Valdez. These mishaps are avoidable with proper safety measures and responsible regulation.

Natural Gas as a Transition Fuel:
Natural gas can serve as a transition fuel, but it’s important to recognize its limitations. Natural gas emits carbon dioxide and contributes to climate change, requiring the capture of remaining natural gas resources.

Responsible Fracking Practices:
Fracking practices need improvement, with responsible regulation and enforcement to prevent environmental damage. Small companies pose a particular challenge, as they may lack the resources to sustain lawsuits and may abandon operations, leaving behind environmental damage.

Earthquakes and Flowback Water:
Earthquakes in Oklahoma are linked to the oil and gas industry, specifically to the injection of toxic flowback water into the ground. Over-injection can lead to seismic activity, necessitating more dispersed injection practices.

Methane Emissions and Fugitive Emissions:
Methane emissions during fracking are often caused by sloppy drilling habits. Fugitive emissions can occur when drilling through minor fossil plays without proper casing and cementing, allowing gas to leak to the surface. Simple and cost-effective regulations, such as testing for methane and requiring casing and cementing throughout the drilling process, can mitigate these emissions.

Key Points:
Fugitive emissions from natural gas systems, such as leaks from pipelines and storage facilities, contribute significantly to methane emissions. Agriculture is the largest emitter of methane, primarily due to the digestive processes of livestock, particularly cows. Research is underway to develop modified cows or feed that can reduce methane emissions from livestock. Infrared sensors and drones can be used to detect leaks in gas pipelines and storage facilities, enabling timely repairs and reducing fugitive emissions.

Other Points:
West Virginia requires full casing and cementing of natural gas wells to minimize fugitive emissions. Old pipelines, as well as new pipelines that develop leaks, are significant sources of fugitive methane emissions.

Conclusion:
Methane emissions from natural gas systems and agriculture are significant contributors to climate change, and efforts are underway to reduce these emissions through improved technology, modified livestock, and better management practices.