Early ARPANET concept: Mitch Waldrop mentions how the ARPANET, predecessor of the Internet, initially wasn’t perceived as a major innovation. It was merely a research project aimed at establishing a network for exchanging bits among academic research sites, with the concept of packet-switching at its core. The initial intention wasn’t to create a military operational link but to link research centers.

Graduate students’ pivotal role: The actual implementation of the ARPANET, including software and protocols, was left to the local sites, which, in typical academic settings, passed the task to the graduate students. These students, expecting guidance from ‘wise men from the east,’ realized that they were the ones responsible for creating the new technology, creating protocols and dealing with issues such as missing packets.

Unacknowledged Innovators: Several students who contributed significantly to the project later became well-known figures in the tech industry, such as Steve Crocker, Vint Cerf, Robert Khan, and Bob Metcalfe. Interestingly, at the time, these contributors viewed their work on ARPANET as a distraction from their “real work,” highlighting how the world-changing nature of their project was not recognized in its early stages.

Emergence of Microprocessors: Waldrop discusses the evolution of technology from the initial use of vacuum tubes in computers to the creation of the microprocessor. This was marked by significant advancements, including learning how to build computers that wouldn’t be disrupted by a tube burnout, the invention of the transistor, and the continuous miniaturization of these components.

Moore’s Observation and Its Impact: Gordon Moore’s observation, which later became known as Moore’s Law, was a pivotal moment in computing history. He noted that the number of transistors packed onto a silicon chip was doubling approximately every two years at a fixed cost, leading to the creation of the microprocessor and eventually paving the way for the establishment of NTHTEL.

Impact of Microprocessors on Personal Computing: The introduction of microprocessors reversed the economic scale of computing, making it feasible for individual users to own computers. The realization of this potential led to the development of personal computers, including the Apple II, which revolutionized the idea of a computer from a build-it-yourself kit to a plug-and-play appliance.

Memory Evolution Paralleling Processor Development: Alongside the development of processors, memory technology evolved significantly as well, moving from magnetic core memory to silicon-based memory. This parallel advancement was critical as without the ability to store data and programs efficiently, the impact of microprocessors would have been greatly limited.

The Birth of the Personal Computer:
The core elements of the personal computer emerged in the late ’70s, setting the stage for significant developments in the ’80s.
This period saw the evolution of the computer from a complex, specialized machine to a user-friendly appliance.

Advent of Spreadsheets and Word Processing:
Key developments included the invention of the spreadsheet, transforming business accounting and contributing to the explosion of Apple II sales.
The emergence of word processing changed writing fundamentally, particularly for professions like journalism.

Standardization and Expansion:
IBM’s entry with its PC led to the standardization of the computer industry around the IBM PC architecture, the Intel chip, and the Microsoft DOS operating system.
Apple also pioneered in bitmap graphics, introducing the Macintosh with a novel, user-friendly interface.

Commodification and Impact on Businesses:
Towards the end of the ’80s, the PC became a commodity with numerous manufacturers producing IBM-compatible machines.
Businesses invested heavily in these machines to automate processes, although the initial productivity increase was minimal due to early software largely replicating existing manual tasks.

Origins of TCP/IP: In the early 1970s, Robert Conn, a contributor to the original ARPANET, spurred the development of a new standard to cater for the multiple needs of military communication. He foresaw the need for different types of networks to communicate with each other, which led to the development of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) by Vinton Cerf.

Functionality of TCP/IP: The TCP/IP protocol functioned like a series of envelopes, where the core data was enclosed in an outer envelope containing the necessary protocols for its current network. When data had to be transferred from one network to another, a gateway would read the inner envelope, package it into a new envelope compatible with the next network, and send it along.

Acceptance of TCP/IP: By 1983, TCP/IP became the official protocol of ARPANET, marking the point when the ARPANET transitioned into the internet. The protocol’s versatility and ability to link any number of diverse networks contributed to its acceptance.

Competition with OSI: In the 1980s, TCP/IP faced competition from other protocols, particularly the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Despite OSI’s promise of greater complexity and elegance, TCP/IP’s simplicity and efficiency ultimately led to its dominance.

Role of the National Science Foundation: The decision of the National Science Foundation (NSF) to use TCP/IP for networking their supercomputer centers around the country was a key factor in cementing TCP/IP’s status. This choice facilitated research work and established a wide-ranging network linking virtually every campus in the country.

Birth of the Web: Tim Berners-Lee, at CERN in 1989, invented a method to apply hypertext to link online documents and display them graphically. His intent was to facilitate researchers in sharing data visually, which revolutionized the otherwise abstract nature of internet data sharing.

Invention of HTML and HTTP: Berners-Lee devised a language for marking up documents for proper display, resulting in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Coupled with this, he created the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), allowing for seamless document transfers.

Web Browsers: Besides HTML and HTTP, Berners-Lee also invented the software called a web browser that allowed users to navigate through documents with ease. This software, first implemented on a high-end graphics machine, laid the groundwork for a multitude of subsequent browsers.

Mosaic: The First Widespread Browser: Mosaic, a browser developed by graduate student Mark Andreessen at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, quickly gained popularity due to its continuous improvements based on user feedback, making it a de facto standard.

Standardization and Interoperability: As with hardware and operating systems in the 80s, there was a push for standardization in web technology, leading to Microsoft’s Internet Explorer dominating the market. Efforts were made to make HTML interoperable with all browsers, culminating in the emergence of multiple browsers like Google Chrome.

Democratization and the Information Commons: This era marked the democratization of computing, making the internet accessible to everyone through HTML, browsers, and HTTP. The concept of an “information commons” open to all was realized, leading to modern phenomena like e-commerce. This realization, however, was not without consequences, such as upending the business models of various industries, including music, news, and publishing.

Two-way Traffic of Internet Content: Waldrop emphasizes that the internet, initially a platform for automating known processes, has evolved to facilitate bi-directional flow of data. Individuals are now creators of their own content, giving rise to platforms like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Wikipedia.

Impacts and Implications: Waldrop acknowledges that the empowerment of individual content creation has a downside – upending business models and fostering channels for radicalization. He predicts increased regulation, possibly a mix of self and government regulations, for social media platforms.

The Uncertain Future of Big Online Monopolies: The author expresses uncertainty about the potential breaking up of big online monopolies. He notes that traditional concepts of monopolies do not account for businesses benefiting from network effects or freemium models, thus prompting reevaluation.

Data Privacy in the Modern Age: Waldrop raises questions about the meaning of privacy in a world where individuals often willingly give up information for free services. He highlights the need to strike a balance in using data effectively while protecting user privacy and preventing misuse.

The Rise of Internet of Things (IoT): IoT’s proliferation means an influx of data from varied sources. While this presents opportunities for monitoring and improving infrastructure, health, and environmental conditions, it also raises concerns about privacy, data sharing, and effective data use.

Conceptualizing Software, Internet, and Hardware: Waldrop talks about how software, the internet, and hardware have developed over time. He emphasizes the importance of understanding these as separate yet interconnected concepts. The abstract notion of software as the ‘soul’ of the machine is presented, illustrating how it’s independent yet reliant on the hardware, similar to how music relies on instruments.

The Insight of John Funnoiman: Waldrop highlights a key insight from mathematician John Funnoiman in 1944, which led to the concept of a stored program. The algorithm or software is seen as another form of data that can be stored inside the computer. This profound shift enabled the abstraction of algorithms from the hardware, leading to versatility in software applications.

Boundary Between Hardware and Software: Waldrop explains that the line between hardware and software is not as distinct as it may seem. Algorithms can be encoded into hardware to make them run faster, blurring the line between these concepts. This becomes even more evident when considering brain function and the development of neural networks and neuromorphic computing.

Defining Software: Waldrop defines software as a set of digital instructions that dictate how a computer operates. He highlights its ability to adapt and modify itself, a feature that is increasingly relevant in the era of artificial intelligence.

The Impact of Graphical Processing Units (GPUs): Waldrop also discusses the emergence of GPUs, which have millions of tiny processors that perform operations useful for graphics display, leading to improved capabilities in digital visual content. This again demonstrates the interplay between software and hardware.

Recent Work and Projects: Mitch Waldrop’s recent work covers diverse fields. He has extensively written about the limits of artificial intelligence, particularly focusing on neural networks. His writings also examine the impact of AI and robotics on jobs, asserting that humans are not going to be replaced anytime soon. Other areas include the creation and effects of deep fakes, and the challenges and opportunities of recycling. His most significant project last year involved a comprehensive exploration of the cosmic origins and the history of astronomers’ and physicists’ understanding of it. This nearly 50,000-word project will soon be published by the John Templeton Foundation.

Probing the Cosmic Origins: Waldrop’s project unraveled the journey of scientific understanding from the time when cosmic origins were considered abstract and philosophical to the acceptance of concepts like cosmic expansion, microwave background radiation, and cosmic inflation. Waldrop emphasizes that these ideas faced significant resistance and were only widely accepted when the evidence became overwhelming.

Accessing and Approaching Work: Waldrop’s works can be accessed through Knowable Magazine and PNAS Front Matter. To tackle diverse topics, he extensively uses online research tools, but his main methodology is interviewing experts in the field. He believes the best way to understand a topic is by interacting with the people directly involved in it. His approach resembles scientific research but is more interpretive.

Insight into Waldrop’s Process: Waldrop’s journalistic process involves seeking fresh perspectives, recognizing patterns, and being open to changing preconceptions based on new information. His unique ability to convey complex ideas contributes significantly to his successful and versatile career.